By Hayaat Fatemah
Patriarchy runs inherently in civilizations, histories, scriptures, language, unconsciousness, and collective memory. Putting reins on women’s freedom, through the institution of marriage or religion, has been a prosaic tactic of control.
Focusing on Indian society, this essay critically examines the subjugation of Muslim women in religious and secular arena, with the aid of educational reforms and religious interpretations. The spaces of women shrank and incarcerated to the household, which derailed their economic, social, religious and political progress.
‘Patriarchy has God on its side’ or does it?
Throughout history, religion has been manipulated to suit one’s politics. In India too, the role of religion weighs heavily when analyzing the subjugation of Muslim women. Maulana Abu-ala Maududi, the pioneer of political Islam in South Asia, published his ideas on women in his book Purdah and Status of Women in Islam in 1979. His radical ideas and opposition to modernity were aimed at undoing the meager progress of Muslim women by discarding it as western or impure, which were used synonymously. Hegel emphasized that the two sexes are different, and for both to function together, one must be passive and one active, assigning the passive role to women. Maududi echoes Hegel when he uses biological difference as a tool to declare the role of women in a marriage and in a society to be that of a passive being in order to allow her husband to be the active entity for a smooth functioning of the relationship. He explicitly states that menstruation is synonymous with disability for a woman, which makes her mentally and physically unfit to be a motor driver, type-writer, tram-conductor, barrister, magistrate or dentist. Mary Wollstonecraft in ‘Vindication of the Rights of Women’ criticizes Rousseau’s beliefs that invalidate women’s capacity to judge for themselves and hence must follow the religion chosen by the husband or father.
Veil and Segregation
The concept of veil and the degrees to which it must be observed was a debated topic and the nineteenth century Indian Muslim households did not allow digressions; imposing a severe form of veil that disabled a woman’s movement. The earliest educational institutions also imposed strict purdah (the Urdu term for veil) on young women students. Amina Wadud in her book Quran and Woman argues that veiling was a cultural practice in Arabia, which forms the historical and cultural context of the Quran. She further emphasizes that one must derive the principle from a Quranic verse (a particular context) and apply it in their own time and context (other particulars), and hence the tradition of veiling can also be looked at from the said perspective.
The two verses in the Quran, 33:59-60 and 24:30-31 lay down the requirements for women’s modesty and veiling. Conservatives read these verses as commandments that give men the legitimacy to force women into observing veils. Islamic feminists have established that the practice of veiling was not meant for all generations to come, but rather particularly for the wives and daughters of the Prophet or the believing women of those times, to be distinguished in the public. With time, various interpretations piled up and veil was considered to be a mandatory practice, and was illegitimately used for segregation of women, which is abundantly clear and observed in the Indian Muslim society where purdah confined the women instead of empowering them. In deep contrast, during the Prophetic era, purdah offered a woman rescue from an uncivilized system to assume rights, instead of making her a nameless, faceless non-entity.
Biological Difference
There was deliberate popularization of criticized and unauthentic Ahadith that term women evil by nature, temptresses and majority dwellers of hellfire. The most excruciating problem faced by all feminists throughout ages is the biological difference between man and woman, and that being used to justify the inequality in society. We see a similar attempt at ending the discourse on gender equality in Islam by postulating women to be weaker in composition, hence the frailer sex. Multiple alleged Ahadith (compiled sayings of the Prophet) that are not only misogynistic in nature but have been used by men time and again to oppress women established the same. Many such Ahadith were added to the Official Corpus, after a hundred years of its closure that demeaned women and rendered them destructive to the political order.
“Be mindful of your Lord Who created you from a single soul, and from it He created its mate” Translation by Khattab.
“O mankind! Reverence your Guardian-Lord Who created you from a single person created of like nature his mate” Translation by Yousuf Ali.
The primary difference between the two translations of the same verse Quran 4:1 lies in the words ‘from’ and ‘of the same nature’ which are translations of the Arabic word ‘min’ used in the verse.[i] A meager difference in translation makes a monumental difference in understanding, Khattab’s translation suggests that man was made and then woman was made from the man, implicitly hinting at the Biblical belief that woman was made from a man’s rib, which is absent in the Quran. The second translation by Yousuf Ali suggests that woman and men are made up of the same components, and hence are equal.
Such an interpretation, owing to varied translation could have debunked the popular narrative that justified inequality citing women’s inferiority and second in hierarchy in India. Islamic Feminism that was branched out in late twentieth century, in Muslim states was called an unwanted child of political Islam by Ziba Mir-Hosseini. Maududi’s political Islam did not receive a similar reaction from the Muslim women, Islamic feminism failed to rise from the Indian soil.
The feminists from the Muslim community who spoke against purdah and confinement did so by rejecting them with secular and liberal arguments. Unlike Wadud, Barlas and Mernissi, the Indian feminists from Muslim community found themselves lacking profoundly in religious education to birth a counter narrative using the same religious texts. Muslim women found refuge in the secular world, facing criticism and slurs from the religious section of the community that disowned them.
After the constitution of the All India Muslim Personal Law Board in 1973, the dynamics of women’s movement changed, as Muslim women became the pawns in an ever-lasting political battle between the right-wing political party BJP and the Muslims. When the 73 year-old Shah Bano was banished by her husband and divorced with Triple Talaq and protests erupted against the particular method of divorce prevalent in the community, All India Muslim Personal Law Board (AIMPLB) opposed Bano’s plea for justice. In this religious and political clamor, the voices of Muslim women were absent within the AIMPLB. The All India Muslim Women Personal Law Board failed to gain eminence or significance. On tracing the history of educational reforms in Muslim society, the reason for the collective silence of Muslim women in religious affairs can be estimated. By tracing the history of Muslim women’s education, one can understand the reason behind little to no scholarly eminence in religious area of Muslim women.
Women’s Education
When social and religious reforms swept the Indian society in nineteenth century, women became the modernizing project for men folks, to regain the lost respect in the opinions of the colonizers. Muslims being ex-ruling class were repulsive to the British rulers, hence remained aloof from the reforms, until the reformist Sir Syed Ahmad Khan established Mohammedan Anglo Oriental College. Such a postcolonial venture and Sir Syed Ahmad Khan’s vision for ‘youth’ was not inclusive of women. Thus, education that reached Muslim society late filtrated down to Muslim women much later.
Activists like Sheikh Abdullah, Waheed Jahan and Karamat Hussain campaigned for women’s education when there were no formal educational institution set up for Muslim women till 1905. The façade of ‘education’ was shed off when Syed Karamat Hussain in a gathering of Higher Education of Indian Women in 1915 delivered a speech on the subject of education for women. In his discourse, he defined the roles of men and women, the former was to earn the bread and the latter was to manage the domestic household. For women to manage the domestic life efficiently, they needed to be trained in practical and home sciences, which called for a school. Thus, the syllabus in the first schools established in Aligarh, Aligarh Zenana Madrasa and Karamat Hussain College in Lucknow, had a very differently styled curriculum that involved basic reading, writing, mathematics, gardening and home sciences.
Maududi’s infamous ideology that a man’s education must suffice for him to earn a livelihood, while the aim of a woman’s education should be for “bringing up children, looking after the domestic affairs and making home-life sweet, pleasant and peaceful” bears stark resemblance with the narratives preceding women’s education movement. A man in 1979 represents the same ideas that were popular in 1870-1900, suggests the attempt at revivalism, that Maududi is attributed for. Such an approach is also reflected in Emilius
It being once demonstrated… that man and woman are not, nor ought to be, constituted alike in temperament and character, it follows of course, that they should not be educated in the same manner. In pursuing the directions of nature, they should not be engaged in the same employments: the end of their pursuits should be the same, but the means they should take to accomplish them, and, of consequence, their tastes and inclinations should be different.
Thus, the educational institutions for Muslim women were mere miniatures of a patriarchal society, cementing the rule of patriarchy and limiting the education, not only liberal but also religious, to basics. Women read what men wrote for them, they were inhibited from sound religious education to a scholarly level, depriving them from critical thinking. Hence, it was the inhibitions and restrictions that disabled the masses of women at large to proceed.
Literature for Women
Samuel Richardson’s Pamela, the goddess of virtue finds her counterparts in multiple Urdu fiction written for women in the late nineteenth century India. Nazir Ahmad’s Banat-un-Nash (The Daughters of the Bier) gifted the common household with two popular characters, Akbari and Asghari, the two sisters, one destined for happiness owing to her obedience, the other being disobedient and argumentative ends up in a distasteful and morose life. Society was not conducive to women having a childhood, a girl’s playfulness was considered vulgar, while a boy’s vulgarity was often excused for boyhood nature. Hence, literary fiction was not written for aesthetic pleasure or entertainment, but rather as books of moral lessons articulated and appropriated by men, for training women to be better wives and mothers. Bihishti Zevar by Maulana Thanavi and Tehzeeb-un-Niswan by Mumtaz Ali were written in the last decade of nineteenth century for the same purpose, as rule books for Muslim women to follow.
Post 1930, The Progressive Writer’s Association (PWA), a literary movement in twentieth century influenced feminists in Muslim community. An anthology ‘Angaare’(Burning Coals) was published in 1932 featuring short stories by Rashid Jahan, Sajjad Zaheer, Ahmad Ali and Mahmud-uz-zafar, who gained popularity through their radical literature. Chughtai in 1942 wrote a short-story, ‘Lihaaf’ (Quilt) which audaciously revolved around female sexuality, was later condemned for obscenity which led to her defending herself in the Lahore court for her work. Rashid Jahan also wrote bold short stories, ‘Dilli ki Sair’ (A Visit to Delhi) and ‘Parde ke Piche’ (Behind the Veil) in 1932. The emergence of feminism faced the brunt of the orthodox society and these writings were heavily repressed, ‘Angaare’ was banned by the British government for its revolting content against the established religious customs.
The pressing question is, to what extent Muslim women in India can produce counter narratives to debunk the radical religious ideas of male religious leaders, whose words hold utmost importance in the society. A community driven by religious thought requires a religious intervention in the apparel of Islamic feminism.
References
Badran, Margot, et al. “Political Islam and Gender” The Oxford Handbook of Islam and Politics, edited by Esposito, John L. and Shahin, Emad El-Din., Oxford University Press, 2013, 114.
Bandyopadhyay, Shekhar. From Plassey to Partition: A History of Modern India. Orient Blackswan Private Limited, 2012.
Bano, S. Rashid Jahan’s Writings: Resistance and Challenging Boundaries, Angaare and Onwards. Indian Journal of Gender Studies, 19(1), 57–71, 2012.
Barlas, Asma. Believing Women in Islam: Unreading Patriarchal Interpretations of the Quran. University of Texas Press, 2002.
Beauvoir, Simone de. The Second Sex. Translated by Borde, Constance., Malovany-Chevallier, Sheila. Vintage Books , 2011.
Lal, Ruby. Coming of Age in Nineteenth Century India: The Girl-Child and the Art of Playfulness. Cambridge University Press, 2015.
Minnault, Gail. Secluded Scholars: Women’s Education and Muslim Social Reform in Colonial India. Oxford University Press, 1998.
Maududi, Abu-Aala. Purdah and the Status of Women in Islam. Translated by Al-Ash’ari. Markazi Maktaba Islami Publishers, 2009.
Rousseau, Jean-Jacques. Emilius; or, a Treatise of Education. Translated from the French of J.J. Rousseau … In Three Volumes. .. Printed for J. Dickson and C. Elliot, 1773.
Wadud, Amina. Quran and Woman: Rereading the Sacred Text from a Woman’s Perspective. Oxford University Press, 1998.
Wollstonecraft, Mary. The Feminist Papers: a Vindication of the Rights of Woman. Gibbs Smith, 2019.
Dear Sister Hayaat Fatemah.
Your Article speaks volumes about the Role and Responsibilities of the Women by various Writers and Religions.
ISLAM finely defines the responsibilities and the Role of Women as a daughter, Sister, Wife and a mother. I shall appreciate if you will highlight the positive aspects during the life of a Muslim Woman !!
Your Sincerely Brother.
Abdul Gani.
abdulganikarim@hotmail.com.
Just shows true face of Islam. And I do not like it.
Only one question to this alleged author;
Is Feminism TRUE, considering it’s ideological underpinnings? What evidence or proof, objective, is there with the author to show that the principles of feminism are true? She’s arrogantly and ignorantly dismissing AUTHENTIC Ahadith and Consensual Understanding of Qu’ranic ayat in favour of some random , perverse writers who are nothing but pawns themselves used in subjugating Muslims to desire worshipping ideologies.
Quote:
Maududi’s infamous ideology that a man’s education must suffice for him to earn a livelihood, while the aim of a woman’s education should be for “bringing up children, looking after the domestic affairs and making home-life sweet, pleasant and peaceful”
What a wise and balanced understanding by Maulana Maududi for the common unprivileged society, it must be by divine inspiration indeed.
Now we understand why those hooked to weed and alcohol (metaphorically speaking) will not find any sweetness in halaal Sheer-khurma!
Agreed, the Muslim community does need lady Doctors, Midwives, Teachers, Tailors, etc – but we also need a stable. balanced, happy Islamic family with the correct beliefs–not those of ”sheekha” Amina Wadud!
And please do some homework–there is a clear saheeh hadith mentioning Mother Eve was created from the upper curved rib of Father Adam–so Allah said-treat women GENTLY and with wisdom, otherwise they would break especially in a marriage with high unrealistic expectations of some naive believers!
And yes, Marriage and hence Family IS the very cornerstone of Islam and the most important sunnah of our last Prophet!
( Absolutely, No place for adultery/Zina OR homosexual women or homosexual anal-sex men in Islam like mentioned in holy Quran about the people in times of Prophet Lut/Lot alaiyhi salaam–UNLESS they are mentally challenged and taking treatment for psychological illness and make repentance-TAUBA before death. So stay away from filthy newspapers, mainstream and social media, movies, TV dramas, shows, online games, Netflix, etc to protect your hearts and eimaan especially from childhood and teenage formative years of your personality.)
If anyone does not accept essentiality of Islamic nikaah and family life; and categorically says or writes in public domain–that person automatically he/she has rejected the Quran and Prophet Mohammed sallallahu alayhi wassalam, and goes out of the fold of Islam–unless he/she repents (Tauba) and says the SHAHADA again in public – verbally or in writing!
Take care, sister–Your English may be perfect; your study of Islamic law/Fiqh and Shariah (Quraan and saheeh Hadiths Sihah Sitta) is nowhere near perfect; kindly get a good teacher of Islam–one example : read the biography of one of the biggest Islamic scholars ever, the Mother-of -Believers Hadhrat Ayesha Radhiallanhu amongst the pious predecessors.
Another option for ladies in today’s age is : Ustadha Farhat Hashmi ( http://www.farhathashmi.com) of Canada. She is not perfect, but she is good as a present day role-model.
Also Must read:
http://www.islam-guide.com
http://www.islamreligion.com